Aggression

Theoretical Perspectives

Aggression is the intentional infliction of some form of harm on others.
Instinct theory
the view that human beings are somehow "programmed" for violence by their biological nature.
Freud held that aggression stems mainly from a powerful death wish or instinct (thanatos) possessed by all persons. He also suggested that directly opposed to this death wish is another instinct, eros, which is focused on pleasure, love, and procreation.
Lorenz proposed that aggression springs mainly from an inherited fighting instinct that human beings share with many other species.
Ardrey contends that because early in the development of our species "we either attacked or starved," our ancestors quickly evolved into a species of hunters.
According to sociobiologists all aspects of social behavior, including aggression, can be understood in terms of evolution. Briefly, behaviors that help individuals get their genes into the next generation will become increasingly prevalent in the species' population.

Drive Theory

Drive theories suggests that such behavior stems mainly from an externally elicited drive to harm or injure others.
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
frustration leads to the arousal of a drive whose primary goal is that of harming some person of object.
Social learning view
emphasizes the fact that aggression, like other complex forms of social behavior, is largely learned.
Through direct and vicarious experience, individuals also learn (1) which persons or groups are appropriate targets for aggression, (2) what actions by others either justify or actually require aggressive retaliation, and (3) what situations or contexts are ones in which aggression is either appropriate or inappropriate.

Limitations of the Frustration-aggression Hypothesis

In its original form, it indicated the following assertions:
Frustration always leads to some form of aggression, and
aggression always stems from frustration.
Growing evidence suggests that both portions are also far too sweeping in scope to be accurate.
Berkowitz's hypothesis is that frustration is an aversive, unpleasant experience, and frustration leads to aggression because of this fact.
In short, frustration sometimes produces aggression because of the basic relationship between negative feelings and aggressive behavior.
He also explains why frustration, even when strong, unexpected, and illegitimate, does not always lead to aggression.
He notes that the negative feelings generated by frustration do initially produce tendencies toward aggression; but these tendencies are soon modified by higher-level cognitive processes.

Direct Provocation

Attributions concerning the causes behind provocative actions by others play a key role in determining our reactions to them.
(Whether the provocation was intended or unintended.)

Media Violence and Aggression

First, exposure to media violence weakens the inhibitions of viewers against engaging in such behavior.
Second, it provides viewers with new techniques for attacking and harming others not previously at their disposal.
Third, watching others engage in aggressive actions can influence viewers' cognition in several different ways by priming aggressive thoughts and memories, making these more readily available in viewers' cognitive system and may then serve to pave the way for overt aggressive actions.
Finally, repeated exposure to media violence may reduce emotional sensitivity to violence and its harmful consequences. Viewers become desensitized to such materials and show lessened emotional reaction to them.

Zillmann's Excitation Transfer Theory

Excitation Transfer Theory - A theory suggesting that arousal produced in one situation can persist and intensify emotional reactions occurring in subsequent unrelated situations.
Exposure to erotic stimuli produces two effects.
First, it increases arousal.
Second, it influences current attentive states - positive and negative feelings.
Whether sexual arousal will increase or reduce aggression, then depends on the overall pattern of such effects.
Mild erotic materials generate only weak levels of arousal but substantial levels of positive affect. As a result, exposure to such materials tends to reduce subsequent aggression.
In contrast, explicit erotic materials generate stronger levels of arousal. Also, since many people find some of the acts demonstrated to be unpleasant or repulsive, such explicit materials also produce considerable amounts of negative affect.
It seems that there is indeed a link between sexual arousal and aggression. However, the nature of this relationship is more complex than first suspected and relates to the effects of both affect (emotions) and cognition.

Males and Females

The tendency for males to engage in aggressive actions more frequently than females is larger with respect to physical forms of aggression (hitting, punching, kicking, use of weapons) than for other forms of aggression (yelling at someone, treating someone condescendingly).
Recent findings suggest that females may actually be more likely than males to engage in various indirect forms of aggression, such as spreading rumors or gossip about another person, rejecting this person as a friend, or ignoring or avoiding the target.
Males generally report less guilt or anxiety about engaging in such behavior than females, while females report greater concern over the possibility that aggressing against others may pose a threat to their own safety.
Males are more aggressive than females because they are taught from an early age that such behavior is appropriate for males, or even required as a demonstration of their masculinity.
In contrast, females are taught that aggression is "unfeminine" and should be avoided, especially in its direct and obvious forms.
For males, the higher the concentrations of testosterone in their blood, the greater their self-reported tendencies to engage in physical, verbal, and impulsive aggression.
For females, in contrast, the higher the levels of testosterone, the lower their tendencies to engage in various forms of aggression.

Punishment and Catharsis

Existing evidence seems to suggest that if used in an appropriate manner, punishment can be an effective deterrent to violence but it must be prompt, it must be strong, and it must be very likely.
Catharsis Hypothesis - The view that providing angry persons with an opportunity to engage in vigorous but noninjurious activities will reduce their level of emotional arousal and lower their tendencies to aggress against others.
Presumably, such activities yield two important benefits: (1) They help to reduce emotional tension; and (2) since they help eliminate anger, they reduce the likelihood of more dangerous forms of aggression. Catharsis may be less effective in producing long-term reductions in aggression than has often been assumed.

Apologies for Transgressions

Ones that make reference to causes beyond the excuse-giver's control are much more effective than ones that refer to events within that person's control in preventing aggression.
Excuses or explanations for provocative actions that appear to be sincere and are specific in nature, provide a clear and detailed explanation of the factors involved, are much more effective in defusing anger and subsequent aggression than excuses that appear to be insincere or are lacking in detail.

Nonaggressive Models

Persons exposed to the actions of nonaggressive models later demonstrated lower levels of aggression than persons not exposed to such models, even if they had been strongly provoked.

Training in Social Skills

It teaches people how to respond to provocations in ways that will soothe, rather than fan the flames of anger.
Also how to make their wishes known to others and how to change their abrasive style of self-expression and insensitivity to the signs of other.

Generation of Incompatible Responses

It is impossible to engage in two incompatible responses or experience two incompatible emotional states at the same time so if a person applies this idea to aggression, they may be able to lessen both anger and overt aggression by inducing reactions of emotional states incompatible with them.
When angry persons are induced to experience emotional states incompatible with anger or aggression, such as empathy, mild sexual arousal, or humor, they do show reduced levels of aggression.
This may occur because the positive feelings produced by such reactions reduce the negative feelings stemming from frustration or annoyance, and also because such positive affect tends to lower the very high levels of arousal associated with extreme anger.