police agencies began to reform by specialized police units and juvenile aid bureaus
	which made job opportunities available for women

	implies that the privilege against self-incrimination (known as the Miranda Warning) applies to custodial interrogation of juvenile offenders.
	One of the most difficult problems for the police officer when interrogating children is determining when the child knowingly and willingly waives the Miranda rights.

	probable cause
	misdemeanor only if committed in the presence of the police in-presence requirement
	felony if observed or if they have probable cause

	anywhere within the immediate area of the suspect's control
	Most courts have held that the Fourth Amendment applies to juveniles as well as adults as viewed in State v. Lowry.
	Police can search a child’s bedroom based on permission of the parents.

	While police need "probable cause" before a search can be undertaken, educators can legally search students when there are reasonable grounds that the students have violated the law or broken school rules.
	school officials can search student lockers and desks

	child is taken into custody one of his or her parents is contacted
	records are destroyed when a case is closed
	if they still exist when the child reaches the age of majority, they may be eliminated through an expungement order

	waiver of rights in the custodial interrogation of children
	totality of circumstances age, understanding, ability to consult

	to arrest or release the child
	For juvenile matters that involve minor criminal conduct or incorrigible behavior, the police are encourage to select the least restrictive alternative.
	The least restrictive option is a street warning.

	Sellin and Wolfgang found in Philadelphia that about half of juveniles involved in serious offenses were arrested
	Nathan Goldman found that conduct which seemed like "adult criminal conduct" was defined as being more serious
	Black and Reiss found that 5 percent of police-juvenile contacts were about felonies

	major determinant of police action
	Dannifer and Schutt found that prior arrest and race is important in discretion.

	Police were witnesses.
	Citizen witnesses provide testimony.
	Black and Reiss found that police had evidence sufficient t connect a suspect with the offense in roughly 75% of contacts.

	Piliavan and Briar found that demeanor was a major factor in about 50 to 60 percent.
	The text - variations in the types of police officers observed.

	study of juvenile defiant attitudes and police dispositions
	among African-American property offenders, the more defiant the attitude, the stronger the disposition often expect worse from police

	Goldman found found that African-American juveniles were likely to receive more serious dispositions.
	Wolfgang found that nonwhites received more severe dispositions than whites, while Weiner and Willie found no evidence of racial bias.
	In 1994, Klinger found that demeanor does not independently impact the police decision to arrest.

race is not the explanatory variable, but that demeanor explains it Vicious circle of those who dress like "tough guys" get more surveillance. Uncooperative attitudes was displayed by about one-third of African-American youths and by about one-sixth.

the difference of handling of African-American and whites is due to complainant preference

	Shannon’s found that juveniles engaging in comparable types of crime were treated similarly in all zones studied.
	Bodine’s study found that juveniles from lower-class neighborhoods had higher rates of court referral.

	Cicourel found differences in social class and police discretion based on parenting styles and parental preferences. Police believe that lower-class parents do not control their children well.
	Thornberry found social class differences are significant, especially for serious offenses.

	first-offender youths controlled for seriousness of offense, age, race and gender extralegal factors were taken into account for minor offenses
	third-offenders white and African-Americans treated alike based on offense

	Self-report studies show that girls are over-represented among youths charged with minor delinquencies and underrepresented for serious crimes.
	Police reluctant to arrest females who behave in stereotypically female ways.

	Goldman showed that some police were too embarrassed to officially sanction those young children who were not stereotypical menaces to society.
	Bodine found that police gave young children a break if they had no previous record.

	a process in which cases are removed from the juvenile justice system after they have been admitted at some level
	1994, 63% were referred to juvenile court, 5% to adult court, 2% to another police or welfare agency, and 26% were handled within the department and released.

	warn
	counsel
	release

	Internal referral community volunteer programs, recreation programs, and probation programs
	External referral acceptability, suitability, availability