Change in one variable leads to change in another variable, ceteris paribus With all other factors or things remaining the same.
	Causal effect

Researcher randomly assigns individuals to two or more groups. characteristics equal except for exposure to the independent variable

The outcome that would have occurred if the subjects who were exposed to treatment actually were not exposed, but otherwise had identical experiences.

	Association between the variables
	Proper time order
	Nonspuriousness of the association authenticity

	Empirical association between independent and dependent variables
	Variation in one variable is related to variation in another variable The more you study for Research, the better your Research grade will be!

Variation in the dependent variable occurred after the variation in the independent variable. Increased studying occurs before your grade raises.

Relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third variable. TAAS scores and high schools due to teaching and administration due to socioeconomics of neighborhood

	Random assignment of cases.
	To reduce the risk of spuriousness and to make the groups as similar as possible. To look at teaching on the TAAS test you would have to randomly assign students to schools.

	Causal Mechanism
	Context

Experimental Design

Maximizing Causal Validity

	Process that creates a causal connection between two variables.
	Bobo experiment the children that viewed the violent cartoon were more aggressive in playing with the doll was modeling the causal mechanism?

	A focus of idiographic causal explanation.
	A particular outcome is understood as part of a larger set of interrelated circumstances.

	Two comparison groups (experimental and control)
	Proper time order of variation in independent and dependent variables
	Random assignment to the two (or more) comparison groups
	Identification of the causal mechanism
	Control over context

	Use statistical controls to reduce the risk of spuriousness.
	Studying naturally occurring variation in the dependent and independent variables. without any intervention by researchers

A study in which data are collected at only one point in time. Identifying time order difficult.

	Visible disorder causes crime.
	Extraneous variable creates the spurious relationship Both visible disorder and crime were consequences of low levels of informal social control (collective efficacy)

	A method in which one variable is held constant so that the relationship between two (or more) other variables can be assessed without the influence of variation in the control variable.
	When informal social control was "controlled" for, the relationship between visible disorder and crime disappears.

	Variables that are influenced by an independent variable and in turn influence variation in a dependent variable. Causal mechanisms in nonexperimental research.
	Helps to explain the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

	Poverty and delinquency
	Intervening variables informal social control low parent-child attachment low maternal supervision more erratic or harsh discipline

Relationship between two variables that is due to variation in a third variable.

Extraneous Variable

	Variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables so as to create a spurious association between them that disappears when the extraneous variable is controlled.
	Creates a spurious relationship.

	Intervening explains the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
	Extraneous creates a spurious relationships Independent and dependent are merely correlated.

	Data are collected that can be ordered in time.
	Measuring the value of cases on an independent and a dependent variable at different times.

	Data are collected at two or more points in time from different samples in the population.
	Trend studies Racial prejudice over the past 50 years

Data are collected from the same individuals at two or more points in time. Better for testing causal hypothesis Subject fatigue Expense

Data are collected at two or more points in time from individuals in a cohort. Comparing the TAAS scores for eighth graders going into two high schools and then three years later. Did the schools make a difference?

	Baby boomers
	Generation X
	Adults Possess a Radically Different View of Teenagers Than Teens Have of Themselves
	Freshmen in College

Units of Analysis and Errors in Causal Reasoning

	To understand variables you must understand units of analysis.
	Groups may be the units of analysis even though you get the information from individuals (units of observation).

Researcher draws conclusions about individual-level processes from group-level data. These may not be wrong, we just don't know from this information.

	Accountability Rating System
	An exemplary high school has fewer discipline problems.
	An acceptable high school has fewer discipline problems.
	This doesn’t mean that students with low TAAS scores commit are more likely to break the rules (ecological fallacy).

Researcher draws conclusions about group-level processes from individual-level processes.

	An initial set of conditions followed by a series of events that lead in a progressive manner to a particular outcome.
	Sequence of events leads to a particular outcome.